In certain operational and environmental scenarios, turbomachinery could be under dynamic loads such as earthquakes, impact/dynamic loadings, or blast loads (blast pressures). Although these might not be normal conditions and may only happen a few times during the life of equipment, they should be considered for overall safety and reliability. Machinery protection requires proper engineering safety and hazard assessment.

Earthquakes, water-hammer, dynamic forces due to the release of fluids, and similar transient cases could happen any time just as error in operation or malfunction could lead to such accidental loading cases. Blasts and explosions, too, must be considered, as well as accidents such as an item dropped from a crane during maintenance or a truck hitting machinery during an overhaul.

How machinery behaves under extreme loads depends on the quality of the design and the engineering/fabrication criteria met. This means going beyond code prescriptions and accurately predicting how equipment will respond during extreme events. Since experimental investigations are invariably limited, alternative approaches should be sought to evaluate the real behaviour and strength under dynamic/impact loads. This requires the use of realistic models or methods that, although may not be entirely accurate, provide some realistic estimates of load-carrying capacity.

The complexity of the response of machinery subjected to large dynamic loads involves many phenomena. These include elastic and plastic wave propagation, material properties, elastic and plastic buckling, fracture, and rupture. Involvements of different kinds of jointing techniques (welding, bolting, etc.) make simulation or assessment challenging. Another difficulty is the time dependency of dynamic loadings and responses.

Machinery protection requires proper engineering safety and hazard assessment.

It might be assumed that dynamic responses resemble corresponding static responses. This is not the case in many applications. For example, the dynamic elastic-plastic buckling of mechanical parts has been different from static cases and can lead to counterintuitive behavior.

Sometimes a simple energy balance using the rigid-plastic method provides guidance on the overall response of machinery and is helpful in selecting dimensions. For instance, a large explosion can be approximated as a uniformly distributed loading.

Piping loads are particularly vulnerable to different dynamic, impact, and blast loads, resulting in serious damage or leaks. Assessments, simulations, and estimates are required for the resistance of pressurized piping to all possible dynamic/impact loadings to ensure their safety and reliability. In many cases, proper protections and barriers should be in place to reduce risk to acceptable levels. Supports and their structures play a major role in the dynamic responses of piping systems.

There could also be different types and modes of failure when studying machinery under dynamic/impact loadings. As examples, three types of defined failures are mentioned here.

The first type is defined as permanent ductile deformation of machinery without any major incident such as leakage, fracture, or rupture. For instance, the thin shell of a machinery casing might be deformed or wrinkle due to an earthquake. This should be regarded as a failure and should be repaired even if there is no leakage or rupture.

A second type of failure is when rupture, tear, or disconnection happens. In other words, this is when the maximum strain reaches the rupture/tear value for the material, usually in a localized area of the machinery. An example is permanent leakage of a flange joint due to large, exerted loads.

The third type of failure is transverse shear failure. This more readily occurs at boundaries and other hard points (or supporting points) of dynamically loaded machinery. For example, anchor bolt(s) of a machinery might be cut due to dynamic loadings. ■

Amin Almasi is a Chartered Professional Engineer in Australia and U.K. (M.Sc. and B.Sc. in mechanical engineering). He is a senior consultant specializing in rotating equipment, condition monitoring and reliability.

Why simple models estimating impact, dynamic, and blast loads provide insight. 

How to Assess Turbomachinery Reliability and Strength

In this episode of the TurboTime podcast, sponsored by Rentech Boilers, Kevin Slepicka, the VP of Heat Recovery Boiler Systems at Rentech, discusses repair and maintenance requirements of heat recovery steam generator (HRSG) boiler systems. He reviews the technical challenges associated with integrating HRSG boilers into an existing facility, the role that HRSGs play in emissions reduction, and a unique installation case.



More about our sponsor: Rentech Boilers, a Texas-based industrial provider, covers the manufacturing, repair, and maintenance of boiler systems and provides solutions to a range of industries.

In this episode of the TurboTime podcast, sponsored by Rentech Boilers, Kevin Slepicka, the VP of Heat Recovery Boiler Systems at Rentech, shares a comprehensive perspective of HRSG boiler systems.

TurboTime: Insights on HRSG Boilers with Special Guest Rentech Boilers

The Baker Hughes Annual Meeting at the end of January 2023 gave voice to oil and gas executives calling for a reevaluation of decarbonization policies they say may be inadvertently worsening emissions while pushing consumer energy bills upwards.

Caption: Decarbonization isn't as black and white as many world governments have made it seem. Credit: Adobe Stock.

Sheikh Khalid Bin Khalifa Al-Thani, CEO of Qatargas, explained that coal consumption reached an all-time high in 2022. Why? A general shortage of oil and gas was in evidence even before the Russia-Ukraine war. That crisis only heightened the problem, especially in Europe. The Europeans gobbled up any available LNG supplies at top dollar. That left a shortfall in many other areas, and coal became the solution.

“The energy crisis in 2022 highlighted the fragility of global energy markets,” said Al-Thani. “We must balance climate and emissions reduction policy with energy security.”

He believes that while the role of renewables within the energy mix will increase, it is many years before any energy transition can realistically take place.

“Substituting natural gas for coal is the key as we cannot decarbonize immediately,” he said. “Natural gas is a necessary complement to renewables for a robust energy supply and as support for climate mitigation. Natural gas is reliable, affordable, available, and has a low carbon footprint compared to coal. This makes it a destination fuel, not a transition fuel.”

Standing in the way is a policy and financing puzzle that makes it difficult and sometimes impossible to receive investment for natural gas projects. Several speakers at the event laid out how funding for large-scale natural gas and LNG projects is often thwarted as the investment field has been told that natural gas won’t be around by 2030. This idea comes from policy makers who set decarbonization targets without regard to the realities of the situation. When disruption comes, short-term policies are rapidly adjusted to accommodate a sudden switch to LNG, as in Europe in 2022. But long-term work to develop new oil and gas fields and build the infrastructure to support them is in neglect and has been for many years.

Lorenzo Simonelli of Baker Hughes laid out the hard truths of the energy transition.

Accordingly, Qatargas plans to boost gas production significantly over the next decade. Al-Thani said the company would do so while reducing its carbon footprint. It has already cut greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions by 12% compared to 2013 and CO2 emissions by 70% via injection and reduction of flaring. Methane emissions, he said, are already less than 1% of the company’s GHG profile.

Nasir Al-Naimi, Executive Vice President Upstream of Saudi Aramco (the largest oil and gas producer in the world), called for a return to energy realism.

“The impractical reality that oil and gas must be replaced has fueled chronic underinvestment, down by more than half from 2014 to 2021,” he said. “We must shatter the misleading narrative that oil and gas can be easily and quickly replaced.”

He laid out the statistics: Fossil fuels supplied 82% of the world’s energy needs in 2021 compared to 7% for renewables. The energy transition, he stressed, will happen at different speeds in different regions as they are at varying stages of development and industrialization. With three-quarters of a billion people still without electricity, the priority in these places is to get power by whatever means necessary.

“Each country has its own unique situation, so we must develop more realistic plays for affordable, reliable, and sustainable energy,” Al-Naimi said.

Saudi Aramco plans to boost production from its current level of around 12 million barrels of oil per day (boe/day) to 13 boe/day by 2027 and increase gas production by 50% by the end of the decade. In parallel, the company is investing heavily in carbon capture, renewables, and hydrogen.

“We must convince the world that oil and gas will play a prominent role in our energy future,” said Al-Naimi.

“We must shatter the misleading narrative that oil and gas can be easily and quickly replaced,” said Nasir Al-Naimi, Saudi Aramco.

Lorenzo Simonelli, Chairman and CEO of Baker Hughes laid out the energy “trilemma”—how to balance sustainability with affordability and security.

“There is no future without hydrocarbons, just as there is no one climate savior,” said Simonelli. “Instead of focusing on the fuel source, we need to focus on emissions as reliance on hydrocarbons won’t disappear.”

He announced that the annual meeting was attended by more than 1,600 people, with more than 50% attending for the first time. Faced with surging energy bills for consumers and industry across the globe, he laid out three key points:

1) The need to accelerate the development and adoption of technologies to meet net-zero targets. On the turbomachinery side, that means such things as compressors and valves that don’t leak methane and other gases.

2) There is no future without hydrocarbons and there is no one climate savior.

3) There is no path to net zero without partnerships.

According to Baker Hughes surveys of oil and gas users, 57% said they are continuing with commitments to natural gas and LNG. “LNG and natural gas are not transition fuels, they are destination fuels that play a critical role in abundant, secure, and affordable energy,” said Simonelli.

Panelists explained the problems with current energy and decarbonization policies.

The harsh realities of global energy were driven home by a series of speakers from around the world. Nurul Ichwan, Deputy Minister for Investment Promotion for Indonesia, explained that most energy in Indonesia comes from coal. He dismissed the idea that tens of GW of coal generation can be transitioned to renewables overnight. His country’s plan is to transition gradually from coal to natural gas while adding more wind and solar.

He commented that some countries in the region are promoting their own environmental credentials by reducing coal mining in their own countries while ordering more coal from Indonesia on multi-decade contracts.

“We want help in exploring and exploiting our own natural gas resources to aid in the transition from coal,” said Ichwan.

Farid Al Awlaqi, Executive Director of Generation for TAQA of the United Arab Emirates (UAE) said his nation has a different approach. It has plenty of solar and baseload nuclear but needs a lot more natural gas to meet swings in demand. “We are removing coal slowly out of the system and replacing with gas,” he said. “Our grids are not ready to manage intermittency.”

Helima Croft, Global Head of Commodity Strategy at RBC Capital Markets, said energy security is back as an energy priority. She is deeply concerned about energy supply over the next year, and said nations needed a diversity of sources. She added that Europe got lucky this year due to a milder winter. She complained about policy makers making it so difficult to fund oil and gas projects.

“We need to avoid underinvestment in oil and gas,” said Croft. “A stable supply of hydrocarbons is vital.”

Kazutomo Irie, President of the Asia-Pacific Energy Research Centre, went a stage further. He noted that emerging and developing nations place more importance on the security and affordability of energy supply than they do on decarbonization.

“We need natural gas to carry out coal-to-gas switching while building up renewables,” said Irie.

Octavio Simoes, CEO, Tellurian, said that while the supply of energy from renewable sources will grow massively in the coming years, it is still a long way from replacing fossil fuels. According to International Energy Agency estimates, the world will need at least 20% more gas and 40% more oil by 2050.

“No energy source has gone down in last 200 years except whale oil,” said Simoes. “The EU still gets 81% of its energy from fossil fuels, so replacing it in ten years is a fool’s errand.”

Yet the environmental lobby and the media are constantly vilifying non-renewable fuel sources. Adding to the problem is a big rise in the cost of the materials used in renewable energy.

“We are on the wrong path to decarbonization as we need affordable energy without volatility,” said Simoes. “We have written the first few and last few chapters on the energy transition and forgotten about the rest of the book. There is a big gap between vision and reality that is wide and getting wider.”

Yet investment in oil and gas in certain countries and political sectors is tabu, he added. The EU, for example, resists investment in gas but is spending far more on decarbonization and not getting there.

“Current energy transition Ideas are not executable,” said Simoes.

Onursal Soyer, Deputy Chief Executive Officer, Lambert Energy Advisory, described how Russian sanctions led the EU to buy up all available LNG at inflated prices to get through the winter and keep the wheels of industry running. As a result, a great many countries were denied LNG. That caused them to turn to coal.

“There was a record level of coal burned worldwide in 2022,” said Soyer. “Coal demand is not going away so replacing it with natural gas should be applauded.”

Hardline decarbonization policies, he added, are a major impediment to oil and gas investment. “This is causing coal to be used more and gas to be penalized, which is only making the situation worse,” said Soyer. 

To further worsen a difficult global energy situation, oil and gas consumption this year will be highest ever and 2023 will be, too. But even with prices high, major oil and gas companies are not investing due to policy hurdles. This investment is vitally needed to maintain current supply and create the oil and gas resources needed to take the world through the next 30 years.

It isn’t just oil and gas that faces shortages and high prices. Other materials are in a real supply crunch, said Kathleen Kelley, Founder and CEO, Queen Anne’s Gate Capital.

To meet the decarbonization and renewable energy targets that have been set, nickel production worldwide will have to go from 100,000 tons to 3 million tons a year. That is unfeasible. It is the same story with rare earths. Some point to the fact that Sweden has found new deposits of rare earths that can be used in batteries and other renewable energy. But those mines will take 10 to 15 years to come online.

“There was a record level of coal burned worldwide in 2022,” said Onursal Soyer, Lambert Energy Advisory.

“Investors are not allocating money to mining due to the industry’s poor performance on environmental, social and governance (ESG) metrics,” said Kelley. “We can’t possibly get to any climate goals based on the timescale of mining alone.”

Jessica Roberts, Head of Forecasting at Benchmark Mineral Intelligence, gave further specifics. Lithium batteries provided 700 kWH of power in 2022. By 2035, they are supposed to provide 5.5 TWH. That requires 300 new mines. It takes five to 25 years to open a new mine.

“We went from 100,000 tons of lithium a few years ago to a million tons last year and will need at least 2 million within a few years,” said Roberts.

Energy industry executives flip the script on unrealistic decarbonization goals. 

The Decarbonization Pushback Has Begun

Rotoflow, an Air Products business, is known for technological innovation in the development and production of turbomachinery over the last 65 years. The first Air Products turboexpander was developed in 1952, and the first practical application of radial turboexpanders in hydrocarbon processes by Rotoflow took place shortly thereafter. Its product range encompasses rotating equipment, alongside after-market services and support.

The company’s work is involved in turboexpander technology for the hydrocarbon, LNG, petrochemical, and industrial gas markets. Phillip Schuepbach, Business Development Manager – New Products and Aftermarket at Rotoflow, said, “Rotoflow’s designs have millions of successful hours of operation with over 3,000 units currently worldwide. Our core products include compressor-loaded expanders (companders), generator-loaded expanders, energy dissipative expanders, and specialty turbomachinery.”

Its full-service aftermarket solutions include field service, shop and field repairs, spare parts inventory, upgrades and rerates, performance and reliability assessments, remote monitoring, and training. Rotoflow’s service technicians can service turbomachinery at all phases of equipment lifecycle and plant types.

“Rotoflow equipment is efficient and reliable, which is a huge factor for oil and gas industry customers tasked with maintaining plant onstream availability. Our power recovery expanders are utilized to recover electrical energy from the expansion of the process stream fluid.” Schuepbach said. This recovered power can be used to offset other electrical usage in the plant, increasing the sustainability of a facility. By eliminating the costly gearbox for low power applications under 500 hp (<370 kW), customers can increase the sustainability of their facilities and recover more power, according to Scheupbach.

Caption: The Rotoflow EC 40 turboexpander is available in two types: oil-bearing or mag-bearing. Rotoflow’s high-pressure compressor-loaded turboexpanders (companders) provide refrigeration for the most efficient air separation and liquefaction facilities in the world. Credit: Rotoflow.

As an OEM, Rotoflow can provide both machinery solutions and turnkey support. “With service centers and field service technicians around the globe, we can mobilize quickly to safely and efficiently repair your equipment no matter where you are,” said Schuepbach. Rotoflow’s field service technicians and engineers handle everything from expander overhaul and changeouts to pump and compressor work, in addition to construction assistance and start up/commissioning activities.

One example of Rotoflow’s global reach is the Shanghai Solution Center. Rotoflow opened the

Caption: Rotoflow’s full-service OEM capabilities enable local service, reliable spare parts inventory, and quick access to system upgrades for turbomachinery. Credit: Rotoflow.

new center in the Qingpu district of Shanghai, China to better serve the turbomachinery needs of customers throughout Asia, reported Schuepbach. In addition to servicing turboexpanders, centrifugal compressors, reciprocating compressors, cryogenic pumps, small steam turbines, gearboxes, fans, and blowers, the facility will also be used to build new expanders for small nitrogen generation plants. Finally, it will support Air Products equipment for the company’s Hydrogen for Mobility initiative.

Setting up inspection and service schedules can help preemptively identify repairs and overhauls. Onsite assessments serve as one of the best strategies for ensuring overall performance of rotating equipment, said Schuepbach. Rotoflow’s experience as an owner/operator can be leveraged to get the most out of equipment. Proper training alongside product and operating knowledge minimizes downtime, maximizing safety, productive operations, and reliability.

Rerates and rebuilds also provide an opportunity to improve the longevity of turbomachinery. Rotoflow can identify causes of damage, recommend performance upgrades that reduce wear and tear, and help prevent future problems. “We have immediate access to materials and equipment and can rapidly dispatch a technician to complete your maintenance needs or get you back online as soon as possible,” said Schuepbach. Routine maintenance involving dirt cleaning, dust, debris, relubrication, and others must be considered, even in the cleanest work environments.

Rotoflow delivers design, engineering and production, and custom solutions. The company’s turbomachinery capabilities service the gasification, air separation, helium, LNG, hydrocarbon, petrochemical, and energy market segments. “In addition to broadening our footprint across the United States, we are enlarging our presence in many previously under-served local markets abroad,” said Schuepbach. Turbomachinery operators demand higher levels of reliability and efficiency. OEMs like Rotoflow—with investments in product development, vertical integration, and skilled teams—will subsequently see further growth. Demand in underserved markets like China and India will also be a strong driver for aftermarket turbomachinery service and support. 

Rotoflow, a manufacturer and operator of turbomachinery, is comprehensive in its approach to support the industry and provide machinery solutions. 

Putting the Flow in Rotating Machinery

In Part 2 of this episode of the TurboTime podcast, we cap off our discussion on energy storage systems in the turbomachinery industry. Klaus Brun and Rainer Kurz lay out the details on how hydrogen plays into it all, outline the California duck curve, and give insight into the costs of running and operating traditional versus alternative energy sources. What incentives are there for providers to produce electricity if the costs of doing so are prohibitively expensive and there's no guarantee that you will be able to sell that electricity in a couple years? We face this difficult question and more on the final chapter of the energy storage conversation.

In this episoode of the TurboTime podcast, the Myth Busters close out their conversation on energy storage in the turbomachinery industry.

TurboTime: Part 2: Myth Busters Talk Energy Storage 

Hydrogen is the most abundant element in the universe. As a carbon-free energy source, it represents one of the paths to a decarbonized energy supply. Flipping the switch to a decarbonized, green tomorrow would be wonderful. The reality is that a number of considerations, technical advancements, socio-economic hurdles, and resource limitations need to be navigated first. This article explores the current state of hydrogen as a fuel supply; what can be accomplished within today’s installed base of power generation; identifies intermediate hydrogen-based carbon reduction solutions; and outlines the advancements necessary to realize the vision of an entirely hydrogen-fueled gas turbine power generation fleet.

When looking for carbon-free energy sources, the most apparent options are solar, wind, hydro, and nuclear. Yet each of these present unique constraints when asked to satisfy the world’s growing demand for electricity. With their fuel flexibility and high efficiencies, gas turbines have increasingly been relied upon to meet the growing global demand for power. Hydrogen represents a means to leverage this installed base to supply car-bon-free electricity in a less disruptive manner than a complete transformation to new power generating technologies. Fueling gas turbines with pure hydrogen produces only water vapor with zero CO

Hydrogen has been successfully blended with the fuel supply in gas turbines for decades. Recent field demonstration tests have shown successful operation at up to a 44% blend of H

 by volume for aeroderivative gas turbines, and up to 20% for large heavy-frame gas turbines. One concern with combusting hydrogen is increased NO

 emissions due to increased flame temperature. Studies have demonstrated negligible change to NO

Table 1: Hydrogen vs. natural gas properties

Gas turbine OEMs are projecting the capability to operate on 100% hydrogen without impacting NO

 formation, primarily through advancements in combustor design and minor if any changes to existing SCR reliance.

The key to unlocking the full potential of hydrogen as a carbon-free energy source is to convert unused solar, wind, hydro, and nuclear energy available during low-demand periods to hydrogen via water electrolysis. The stored hydrogen produced can then be utilized as an alternate fuel by gas turbines to generate carbon-free electricity during high-demand periods.

Today, the United States utilizes approximately 10 quadrillion BTU/yr of natural gas to produce electricity, according to the U.S. Energy Information Administration. Total hydrogen production is approximately 1 quadrillion BTU/yr. Of this, green hydrogen production capability is only 269 trillion BTU/yr. Note that the vast majority of hydrogen produced today is NOT used to generate electricity—nearly all in the United States is used in refining petroleum, treating metals, producing fertilizer, and processing foods. Petroleum refineries use it to lower the sulfur content of fuels. With the introduction of the Inflation Reduction Act (IRA), the hydrogen industry is poised to take the biggest steps seen to date toward closing this production gap, with a $3/kg tax credit available for green hydrogen production and lesser amounts for more carbon-intensive forms of hydrogen production.

Figure 1: The hydrogen color wheel. Courtesy of MHI.

As the availability of hydrogen continues to grow, opportunities will arise for power utilities to introduce it as a carbon-free fuel stream for their gas turbine fleets. Making the change from natural gas to 100% hydrogen in a single step may not be feasible in the near term given the required energy consumption and lack of availability of hydrogen. A reasonable approach may be to introduce it in increasing volume in blends aligned to availability in given geographic areas. The following factors should be considered when approaching these blending opportunities: hydro-gen supply and storage, fuel conditioning and blending skid design, gas turbine capability and period of use, and personnel safety and training.

Table 2 provides a mathematical model of a blending application for a 60Hz GE LMS100 PA+ gas turbine genset operating in simple cycle mode. Figures presented are based on published full-load, beginning-of-life performance for the LMS100 PA+, based on data from GE Gas Power. Based on the relative density and LHV differences between natural gas and hydrogen, one can see the total flow more than triples as you approach 100% hydrogen operation. (This model assumes the line pressure does not change across the range of blending %.) An important consideration for retrofit applications is accommodating this increase in volumetric flow once the 75% blending threshold is approached, where total flow is approximately doubled. Existing piping infrastructure supplying the genset, as well as the fuel delivery piping at the combustors, will need to be evaluated for the increased relative pipe velocities this will result in.

Table 2: Model of a hydrogen-blending application. Courtesy of CRDX.

Assuming the hydrogen delivered in the Table 2 example is green or pink hydrogen, another interesting point is the amount of water required. These figures represent the theoretic water necessary to produce hydrogen, which are significant in and of themselves, but do not take into consideration any losses encountered during the purification process of the water to meet a given electrolyzer application. For instance, if sea water is considered as the water source, a desalination process is necessary as well as a deionizing process. Considerations and technical advancements in this area will be necessary to introduce green or pink hydrogen at the scale necessary for power industry consumption.

Blue hydrogen, and turquoise hydrogen (further down the road) represent alternate sources of carbon-free hydrogen that are based on the conversion of natural gas with some form of carbon sequestration. For blue hydrogen, carbon capture and sequestration systems are added to the existing grey hydrogen reforming process to eliminate CO

 emissions. For turquoise hydrogen, a pyrolization process produces hydrogen and carbon in the form of carbon black versus CO

. The carbon is immediately sequestered and available for alternate usage points, replacing more carbon intensive sources.

Hydrogen represents a promising way to reduce the carbon footprint of the power industry. Growing advancements in hydrogen production technologies coupled with strong support from the federal government by way of the IRA bring the opportunity to deliver solutions to the forefront. State and local incentives likewise serve as a catalyst for adoption.

Figure 3: H-Cubed hydrogen blending by CRDX

Recent in-the-field hydrogen-blending demonstration projects on both aeroderivative and heavy-frame gas turbines indicate the power sector is ready to take the next step. Implementing a gradually increasing hydrogen-blending strategy for the gas turbine fleet represents an opportunity to realize these benefits today while laying the framework to support a carbon-free energy sector of the future. 

Gus Graham is Business Development Manager at Carbon Reduction Systems (CRDX), a technology-based manufacturing company developing products and services for reducing the use of carbon-based fuels and their emissions. Visit www.crdxs.com or call +1 518-765-8329.

Anthony Brough, P.E. provides business development support for CRDX. He can be reached at abrough@CRDXS.com.

Hydrogen plays a significant role in decarbonizing power generation.

Hydrogen Turbines in Power Generation

In this episode of the TurboTime podcast, we interview longtime 

columnists Klaus Brun and Rainer Kurz on the state of energy storage in the industry. Existing technologies such as the natural gas pipeline system are crucial compared to alternative energy storage solutions, such as batteries or wind. The intermittency of newer storage systems puts into question their reliability, especially in terms of meeting peak demand. Natural gas can be ramped up or down depending on demand and doesn't heavily rely on exterior factors such as wind, water availability, or sunshine to reach optimal efficiencies.

In this episode of the TurboTime podcast, longtime columnists Klaus Brun and Rainer Kurz discuss the state of energy storage in the industry. 

TurboTime: Part 1: Myth Busters Talk Energy Storage 

Securing reliable power can sometimes prove difficult, especially if you want it in a hurry. In this article, major turbomachinery OEMs, working alongside installation and packaging service providers, outline one solution: mobile gas turbine power units (MPUs). The story covers what’s driving demand for MPUs, their various design goals, and examples of different customer requirements. In addition, problems facing the industry as well as practically applied solutions are discussed. For example, demand currently exceeds supply in many areas, with further growth anticipated by manufacturers. Below, we examine the cross section among aeroderivative gas turbines, logistics, hydraulic fracturing (fracking), LNG, remote operations, hydrogen blending, inclement weather events, and more, with mobile power at the focal point.

Power producers who strive to supply reliable and affordable power to their customers require dispatchable assets that can provide power when needed. On-demand, aeroderivative power plants complement the rise in renewables while maintaining grid stability and reliability because of their inherent fast-start and flexible design capability.

Mitsubishi Power Aero offers a 31 MW FT8 MOBILEPAC aeroderivative mobile powerplant.

“The modular design of the FT8 enables faster deliveries, quick installation, and commissioning,” said Harsh Shah, Vice President, Sales and Business Development at Mitsubishi Power Aero.

Trailers can be transported and relocated easily. He added that the MOBILEPAC design eliminates the need for concrete foundations, reduces installation time (less than two weeks), and has a footprint of as little as 4,300 square feet. This design, coupled with the MOBILEPAC’s fuel flexibility (diesel, natural gas, hydrogen, and LPG), has resulted in over 130 gas turbine packages deployed globally.

FT8 MobilePac Unit disembarking an Antonov cargo transport aircraft. Credit: Mitsubishi Power Aero.

“MPUs provide reliable power to ensure that schools, hospitals, industries, and other basic infrastructure can remain operational,” said Harsh Shah, Mitsubishi Power Aero.

“In these cases, MPUs provide reliable power to ensure that schools, hospitals, industries, and other basic infrastructure can remain operational,” said Shah.

Rapid deployment and black start capability make the FT8 MOBILEPAC unit ideally suited for emergency power needs arising from weather-related events or other unforeseen situations.

“For some applications —such as distributed power, crypto-mining operations, and e-fracking a—mobile power solution is necessary,” added Shah. “Customers select FT8 MOBILEPAC because of installation ease and relocation capabilities.”

The high reliability and 5-minute fast start capability of these packages provide flexibility when dealing with uncertain load forecasts. Fast relocation allows the FT8 MOBILEPAC to be applied to electric well-stimulation systems powered by natural gas, resulting in less disruptive and safer fracturing operations. “Mitsubishi Power Aero provided three FT8 MOBILEPAC gas turbines on top of eight stationary operating units to Puerto Rico,” said Shah. These gas turbines continue to secure reliable power on the island. The equipment provides power and can be relocated to isolated areas in case of an outage or disaster.

In 2021, Mitsubishi Power Aero completed a turnkey installation and commissioning of five 30 MW mobile units in 120 days from contract to commercial operation prior to peak season in Mexicali, Mexico. An additional three units were added to the same site to support summer 2022 peak requirements and offset the shortfall while optimizing the existing power infrastructure.

For another example, 54 MOBILEPAC packages were installed at 12 sites across Algeria. Since initial installation, almost half of the units have been relocated to support even more remote communities. In one region, a special control system has been implemented to manage output of several mobile units, which has greatly improved grid stability and significantly reduced instances of blackouts. Factors to consider when purchasing an aeroderivative mobile power unit are delivery and installation lead times, fast relocation capability, fast startup, minimal space requirements, high reliability, and minimal maintenance downtime.

Naidu Balachandar, Leader of the Aero Product Management Organization at GE Gas Power, discussed the OEM’s active mobile gas turbine fleet. GE’s trailer-mounted TM2500 gas turbines are derived from jet-engine technology. They can be mounted on a wheeled trailer for enhanced mobility. This provides a baseload bridge to permanent power installations, or for generating backup power in the wake of natural disasters, plant shut-downs, grid instability, or in isolated locations. They can run on natural gas or diesel, as well as sustainable aviation fuel blends. In addition, the TM2500 is hydrogen capable, with the ability to burn up to an 85% H

 blend, ensuring a pathway to help utilities and other stakeholders reduce their carbon emissions.

GE’s LM2500 aeroderivative gas turbine is frequently used in MPU packages. Credit: GE Gas Power.

GE’s LM2500Xpress package is built on LM2500 aeroderivative dry low emissions (DLE) gas turbine technology. It can be installed in two weeks. Its plug-and-play nature provides flexible power efficiently wherever needed. It is available in simple and combined cycle configuration, and is also hydrogen-capable.

“Customers need two things in any mobile power package: the ability to put power on the grid within a short time frame and reliability,” said Naidu Balachandar, GE Gas Power.

“These units can reach production capacity in a short time, which enables power providers to quickly meet peak demand and ramp down units to avoid wasting energy when demand is lower,” said Balachandar.

Balachandar added that customers need two things in any mobile power package: the ability to put power on the grid within a short time frame —TM2500 packages can deliver power within 10 days—and reliability.

“Over 4,000 aero derivative gas turbines have been used in power generation, marine, and oil and gas applications,” said Balachandar.

Solar Turbines has sold a variety of mobile power unit configurations since 2000. Currently, the company offers two solar mobile turbomachinery (SMT) versions. The smaller mobile unit (SMT60) is powered by Solar’s Taurus 60 engine and offers 5.7 MW of power at ISO conditions in a single frame. The dual frame SMT130 offers 16.5 MW ISO of power with the Titan 130 engine at its core.

With more than 35 units shipped, the SMT60 is a popular unit to support emergency power, back-up power applications, and electric fracturing (e-FRAC) operations to name a few, said Jay Mistry, Mobile Turbomachinery & Electric Motor.

SMT130 unit ready to go. Credit: Solar Turbines.

“With the continuing need for global power and challenges in grid development and implementation, the need for flexible mobile power will continue to grow,” said Jay Mistry, Solar Turbines. Compressor Business Manager at Solar Turbines.

After hurricane Nicholas hit Houston, Texas, in September 2021, two SMT60s were deployed to provide power for the displaced population. It offers a compact footprint with a 56-foot long trailer that is 8.5-feet wide and 13.5-feet tall that can be setup in less than four hours.

These units are capable of digital load sharing and can be integrated with any solar products. Add-on options for multi-unit power management or microgrid controls are available.

Greek company Mytilineos has expertise in gas turbines including mobile units. It has developed a fast-track approach with trailer-mounted balance of plants. All packages are delivered assembled and pre-commissioned, limiting on-site installation requirements.

“The mobile plants are dual-fuel capable (natural gas or distillate/DFO) with related fuel handling and treatment systems packaged in trailer mounted form for quick delivery,” reported Kostas Horinos, Executive Director of Mobile Power Projects at Mytilineos.

Mytilineos undertakes the engineering, procurement, and construction (EPC) activities through to project completion. It supplies solutions based on the needs of the client. “Our portable MPUs using aeroderivative gas turbine equipment generate up to 32 MW per unit,” said Horinos.

“Mytilineos undertakes EPC activities through to project completion, supplying customized, fast-track solutions,” said Kostas Horinos, Mytilineos.

One project was in Takoradi, Ghana. Operation and maintenance for 10 GE TM2500+ mobile gas turbine power generating sets. And in Algeria, Mytilineos provided EPC for 38 mobile gas turbine power generating sets with a total output of 775 MW.

For over 20 years, USP&E has specialized in the supply of new and surplus power plants, EPC, and managing the reliable operations of the plant. The company specializes in the mobile power market. “Building a new power plant from scratch can take years, and this time is not always available”, said Will Gruver, Founder and Group CEO at USP&E. “Production lead times with major OEM’s can be as long as two years, while we have the same equipment ready to dispatch in a matter of weeks.”

For immediate power, USP&E has a large number of GE TM2500 mobile turbines available and is currently seeing high demand. These trailer-mounted units offer 26 MW.

“Building a new power plant from scratch can take years, and this time is not always available,” said Will Gruver, USP&E.

USP&E is sending six TM2500’s to crypto mining projects where the client moves them every couple of months to new gas sources. Another client is using 10 TM2500’s to solve a utility crisis. The company is also involved in hydrogen generation projects.

Power plant utilizing configurable mobile power gas turbines. Credit: USP&E.

LifeCycle Power provides 5 MW to 35 MW mobile packages for utility and oil and gas applications in the United States. Its fleet utilizes Solar SMT60, Solar SMT130, Mitsubishi FT8, and GE 2500 machines. “Many current applications require fast deployment and movability,” said Geoff Bland, Director of Engineering & Operations, LifeCycle Power. Emissions and fuel variety is increasingly important.

Lifecycle Power’s turbines generate as little as 0.15g/bhp-hr (grams per brake-horsepower hour) NO

. There is little to no methane slip, and they can run on diesel and untreated gas. Another benefit is that installation only takes a few hours. Being able to start on diesel and transition to natural gas is a major factor for many customers. The market for natural gas MPUs is gaining ground due to regulatory mandates around NO

 and particulate matter at low load that reciprocating engines find difficult to achieve.

“Many current applications require fast deployment and movability,” said Geoff Bland, LifeCycle Power.

“Natural gas isn’t available for every location, although the shortage of high horsepower diesel engines has driven an increased market in virtual pipeline transport of CNG and LNG and an increase in natural gas engine sales,” stated Bland. “Turbine solutions that can meet the demands of the market are maxed out and held back by build speed and supply chain restrictions.”

Diagram for the major components of a mobile power unit package. Credit: Dynamis Power Solutions.

Dynamis Power Solutions offers a variety of mobile turbine generator packages, ranging from 5 MW to 35 MW. The kits are Department of Transportation (DOT) compliant and are easily transported and installed. “Dynamis uses technologies such as GE’s LM2500+ G4, rated at 35 MW, coupled to Brush generator technology,” said Travis Simmering, Vice President of Sales & Marketing at Dynamis.

“Dynamis units can operate in numerous locations and applications, providing reliable and efficient power,” said Travis Simmering, Dynamis.

Dynamis integrates power generation assets onto a hyper-mobile trailer system, with additional ancillary support and an optional control trailer. The packages go from parked to power in 6 to 8 hours. An auto leveling system enables site-to-site transport without a concrete mounting pad. The turbine assembly has an automatic transfer switch, allowing the package to operate in island mode post startup. Simmering said features such as an integrated gas filter and air pre-filter maximize uptime increase the span between maintenance intervals. Recently, Dynamis supplied DT35’s (based upon the GE LM2500+ G4 prime mover) to rental customers in the oil and gas market. “Dynamis units can operate in numerous locations and applications, providing reliable and efficient power,” said Simmering.

Dynamis has seen a steady rise in demand for natural gas mobile power, larger turbine power blocks, and non-detrimental emission reduction solutions.

Over the last decade, the market has had an in-flux of natural gas power, replacing older diesel technology with cleaner, more sustainable fuel, reported Simmering. The growing demand for cleaner technology and larger power continues to challenge the mobile power market to innovate mobile turbine modularization design and production.

Mobile power gas turbines can be up and running in a matter of hours to effectively get power where it’s needed.

How Mobile Power Solves Unreliable Electricity

Amin Almasi is senior rotating equipment consultant in Australia. He is chartered professional engineer from Engineers Australia and IMechE and registered professional engineer in Australia and Queensland (M.Sc. and B.Sc. in mechanical engineering). He specializes in rotating equipment, condition monitoring and reliability.

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Baker Hughes has announced that it has been awarded an order by Black & Veatch, a subcontractor to the JGC and Samsung Heavy Industries consortium. The order is for the delivery of two LM9000-driven compressor trains for the PETRONAS nearshore LNG facility in Sabah, Malaysia. Baker Hughes will provide two LM9000-powered compressor trains of 1 million tons per annum each, with the contract also including an order for spare parts.

"Energy efficiency represents the biggest immediate opportunity for the industry to lower its carbon footprint, and the LM9000 is a great example of readily available technology that can instantly increase efficiency and reduce emissions," said Alberto Matucci, Vice President of Gas Technology Equipment of Industrial & Energy Technology at Baker Hughes.

The Baker Hughes LM9000 aeroderivative gas turbine features 65 MW generation capability. The turbine features a simple cycle efficiency of 44%. This efficiency contributes to driving lower carbon intensity. The modular package allows for quick installation and lower costs compared to field-erected units. The LM9000 is designed for easy inspection and condition-based maintenance, providing high reliability and maintainability. The LM9000's flexibility enables its application in power generation, thereby boosting the supply of low-carbon electricity to the world's energy plants and power grids.

Baker Hughes’ LM9000 gas turbine installation aims to lower carbon intensity and emissions at the Malaysian nearshore LNG project.

Baker Hughes to Supply LM9000 Gas Turbine for PETRONAS LNG Project 

ENOGIA, a company specializing in micro-turbomachinery, announced its 2022 annual results. The company experienced a 12% revenue growth over the year, with a 39% increase in the second half. They confirmed their target of positive EBITDA in 2023 and anticipate a significant rise in revenue over the coming three years.

Arthur Leroux, Chairman and CEO, commented: “ENOGIA has delivered significant revenue growth in its first full year since its IPO on Euronext Growth in July 2021, despite challenges from the health situation in China resulting in the shutdown of the ORC contract signed in 2021. The year featured major investments in R&D and the expansion of teams, especially the sales team, along with numerous developments and new partnerships. These advances set the stage for a clear acceleration of the growth trajectory, which began in the second half of 2022 (+39%), and an improvement in profitability, with the goal of delivering positive EBITDA in 2023. ENOGIA operates in a thriving environment characterized by unprecedented energy efficiency requirements in the industry, and the strong interest in ENOGIA’s solutions is evident in a robust order book totaling more than €5 million at the end of 2022.”

In line with the priorities announced during its IPO on Euronext Growth, ENOGIA increased investments in R&D and intensified new business activities last year. The company expanded its workforce to 62 employees at the end of 2022, compared to 45 during the IPO. ENOGIA successfully consolidated its lead in ORC technology and strengthened its operations in hydrogen fuel cell compressors.

The company secured a €6.5 million contract to supply 40 ORC modules to an anaerobic digestion plant last August. ENOGIA also entered into a commercial partnership with Parlym, an industrial engineering organization with presence in France and Africa, for the distribution, promotion, and marketing of its ORC modules.

In 2022, ENOGIA's revenue reached €3.3 million. The company’s growth was driven by the ORC business, benefiting from the start of the biogas contract in Germany, while revenues from the hydrogen fuel cell compressors business increased by 71%.

ENOGIA aims to accelerate its business plan in 2023, taking advantage of investment efforts over the past two years. The company expects revenue to grow by more than 50% in 2023, with full-year EBITDA being positive, and this momentum is anticipated to continue with average revenue growth exceeding 50% per year in 2024 and 2025.

ENOGIA confirms a positive target for 2023 and a revenue increase over the next three years.

ENOGIA Reports 12% Revenue Growth in 2022

Montauk Renewables has revealed plans to expand its presence into the South Carolina market with the development of a new landfill gas-to-renewable natural gas (RNG) facility. The project is anticipated to add approximately 900 MMBtu per day to the company's production capacity upon its completion, which is scheduled for mid-2024.

Sean McClain, President and CEO of Montauk Renewables, explained that the new RNG site in South Carolina demonstrates a rapidly changing industry landscape. Over the next 18 months, Montauk Renewables expects to invest approximately $25 million in total project costs, with investments beginning immediately.

The development of this facility not only supports Montauk Renewables' growth strategy but also contributes to South Carolina's clean-energy goals. As the state seeks to reduce its dependence on fossil fuels and transition toward more sustainable energy sources, the new RNG facility will provide a resource for meeting these objectives. The project is expected to create job opportunities and stimulate economic growth within the local community.

Montauk’s project will bring an additional 900 MMBtu daily output of RNG to the region.

Montauk Renewables to Construct Landfill Gas-to-RNG Facility in South Carolina 

Chevron Corporation has declared its intent to acquire PDC Energy, Inc., having signed a definitive agreement to purchase all outstanding shares of the latter company. The all-stock transaction, valued at $6.3 billion or $72 per share, is predicated on Chevron’s closing price as of May 19, 2023. Under the agreement terms, PDC shareholders will acquire 0.4638 shares of Chevron per each PDC share they hold. The total value of the acquisition, inclusive of debt, amounts to $7.6 billion.

This acquisition furnishes Chevron with high-grade assets projected to yield superior returns in less carbon-intensive U.S. basins. PDC’s robust free cash flow, low production breakeven point, and development opportunities align well with Chevron’s current position in the Denver-Julesburg (DJ) Basin. In addition, PDC offers Chevron further acreage in the Permian Basin.

Chevron Chairman and CEO Mike Wirth commented, "PDC's valuable and synergistic assets bolster Chevron’s stance in crucial U.S. production basins. This transaction augments all significant financial indicators and advances Chevron’s goal of safely providing higher returns and reducing carbon emissions."

Bart Brookman, PDC President and CEO, noted that the deal "provides a global portfolio of best-in-class assets" and believes that PDC’s assets will contribute to Chevron's movement towards a lower carbon energy future.

The transaction, which enhances earnings per share, free cash flow, and return on capital employed (ROCE), is predicted to add approximately $1 billion in annual free cash flow for Chevron. The acquisition is also expected to boost Chevron's proven reserves by 10% at a cost under $7 per barrel of oil equivalent (BOE). Chevron's planned capex increase of about $1 billion per year is anticipated to offset around $400 million in capex efficiencies after closing.

The acquisition will be finalized through Chevron's equity. Upon closing, Chevron will issue approximately 41 million shares of common stock. The total enterprise value of $7.6 billion includes net debt. The transaction has received unanimous approval from the Boards of Directors of both companies and is expected to close by the end of 2023, pending PDC shareholder approval, regulatory approvals, and other customary closing conditions.

Morgan Stanley & Co. LLC is serving as the lead financial advisor to Chevron, while J.P. Morgan Securities LLC is fulfilling a similar role for PDC Energy. Legal advice for the companies is being provided by Paul, Weiss, Rifkind, Wharton & Garrison LLP, and Wachtell, Lipton, Rosen & Katz, in tandem with Davis Graham & Stubbs.

The all-stock transaction, valued at $6.3 billion, is expected to enhance Chevron's operational presence in key U.S. basins.

Chevron to Absorb PDC Energy in $6.3B Deal 

The China Petroleum & Chemical Corporation, known as Sinopec, has concluded a key terms agreement with Kazakhstan's national oil and gas industry operator, KazMunayGaz. The signing ceremony took place in Xi'an, China, coinciding with Kazakh President Kassym-Jomart Tokayev's official visit.

Sinopec Signs Key Terms Agreement with Kazakhstan for Polyethylene Project (PRNewsfoto/SINOPEC)

This preliminary agreement stipulates that Sinopec will contribute to the development of a polyethylene project in the Atyrau Region as a collaborating partner. The project, slated to be the largest of its kind in the region, is pending an investment decision anticipated for 2024. Should Sinopec formally join the initiative at that point, all involved parties will execute an equity acquisition agreement along with other pertinent legally binding documents. Sinopec operates in integrated upstream, midstream, and downstream operations, strong oil and petrochemical core businesses, and a complete marketing network.

Sinopec and KazMunayGaz have sustained a cooperative partnership for a considerable period, which is set to deepen with the signing of this new agreement. Sinopec's extensive experience and leadership in engineering, production, operation, and marketing will complement KazMunayGaz's robust local market capabilities and abundant resources, fostering mutually advantageous cooperation and reciprocal growth.

Sinopec is a publicly traded company on both domestic and international exchanges, with a business portfolio spanning upstream, midstream, and downstream operations, as well as oil and petrochemical core businesses. 

Based in Astana, KazMunayGaz acts as the representative for the Republic of Kazakhstan's interests within the oil and gas industry. The company's primary operations encompass oil and gas exploration and extraction, petroleum processing, oil product sales, storage, pipeline management, oil field services, among others.

The terms of the agreement, sealed on May 18, foreshadow Sinopec's prospective involvement in this Atyrau region natural gas and chemical project.

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